En este artículo se establece un análisis histórico, axiológico y epistemológico de las condiciones de advenimiento de una filosofía médica abocada al estudio de la enfermedad. El examen de estas condiciones toma en cuenta los estudios clásicos y contemporáneos de la filosofía de la medicina, analizando sus distintas perspectivas y enunciados. La reflexión en torno de los supuestos y conceptos asociados a tal tipo de filosofía, localiza la enfermedad en sus distintas dimensiones: en el ámbito del acontecimiento biológico (disease), del (...) orden social (sickness), y de la experiencia vivida (illness). Tres puntos de deliberación presentan el cuerpo nodular de estos análisis: a) la constitución disciplinaria y conceptual de la enfermedad como un hecho total: variantes epistemológicas de la medicina y la filosofía antigua; b) la psicopatología en la constitución de una filosofía de la enfermedad, el análisis epistemológico de dos conceptos: normal-patológico; y c) la filosofía de la vida de G. Canguilhem, su curso antropológico y normativo en la definición de la enfermedad. (shrink)

A partir de las nociones de ficción, de animalidad y de mundo, el presente artículo pretende establecer ciertas ideas directrices para pensar los vínculos que las producciones culturales mantienen con la categoría de lo animal. El análisis de esta categoría se vincula igualmente a la problemática del sacrificio. Taking the concepts of fiction, animality, and world this article intends to lay down some leading ideas for analyzing the link between cultural productions and the animal category. This is also related to (...) the concept of sacrifice. (shrink)

El artículo pretende bosquejar las principales discusiones epistemológicas implicadas en las definiciones actuales sobre lo patológico en el terreno de la psicopatología contemporánea. Al mismo tiempo, bajo una lectura histórico-epistemológica, se centran los dos principales ejes de una teoría de la subjetividad en psicopatología: lo enfermo y lo sentido.

Resumen: El presente articulo desarrolla un examen respecto de los principales aspectos a considerar en el análisis que las filosofías de G. Canguilhem y de M. Foucault destinan al problema de la locura. El texto estipula las condiciones filosóficas de aproximación que ambos autores elaboran para pensar el problema de las normas en el ámbito vital y social. La pregunta: ¿qué es un loco? se convierte entonces en la cuestión de las prácticas sociales y políticas que se han desarrollado respecto (...) de los locos y la locura, evidenciando la relevancia que Canguilhem y Foucault conceden al problema de las normas, ya sea en un marco de comprensión ontológico y/o histórico-político. Abstract: The present article develops an examination of the main aspects to be considered in the analysis that the philosophies of G. Canguilhem and M. Foucault devote to the problem of madness. The text stipulates the philosophical conditions of approach that both authors elaborate on to think about the problem of norms in the vital and social sphere. The question: what is crazy? then becomes the question of the social and political practices that have been developed concerning madmen and madness, evidencing the relevance that Canguilhem and Foucault give to the problem of norms, either in an ontological and/or historical-political framework of understanding. (shrink)

El presente artículo intenta explorar en dos tiempos de indagación del método estructural de Claude Lévi-Strauss. El primero de ellos se ubica en torno de los criterios epistemológicos y metodológicos que cifran el análisis del parentesco y del mito. El segundo tiempo pretende indagar en el alcance de estos criterios para definir la categoría de sujeto y de pensamiento al interior de la antropología estructural. Finalmente, una ilustración de estos problemas es elaborada mediante el tratamiento que el método estructural asigna (...) a la teoría psicoanalítica. (shrink)

Bajo la intención de desarrollar una reflexión en torno de la noción de frontera en el contexto de los grandes problemas abiertos por la globalización, el presente artículo repara de manera particular en las categorías de identidad e identificación, figuras construidas por las representaciones que el estado nación ha brindado para la edificación de las subjetividades. El análisis de estas categorías es llevando adelante según un conjunto de supuestos psicoanalíticos.

El presente artículo aborda los enunciados psicoanalíticos referidos a la problemática política y sus inconsistencias. Poco elaborados en los textos de vocación cultural escritos por Freud, la relevancia de estos para observar el fenómeno de la politización colectiva adquiere un rol destacado en la tardía obra destinada al problema del monoteísmo. El pensamiento de Freud referido a los pasos que la comunidad humana realiza en el proceso de su politización, recoge un pluralismo de referencias características del relato trágico, prosaico y (...) religioso. Las tesis relativas a la vida pulsional, permiten visualizar el modo que poseen estas narraciones para provocar la saturación de las inconsistencias que obran en el accionar de la política. (shrink)

This article analyzes the repercussions of G. Politzer’s thought on the philosophy of life elaborated by G. Canguilhem. During the first thirty years of the twentieth century, Politzer’s texts provide important material for the construction of the philosophy that Canguilhem builds on human individuality and its autonomy. The reading of Politzer constitutes for Canguilhem a motive of inspiration for his axiological, moral and political proposals. By associating the ideas of the concrete psychology that encapsulates the existence of man-actor, Canguilhem reconciles (...) two series of arguments: a). the philosophy of life cannot do without an approach to human action; b). the presence of human action becomes inseparable from the assumptions that debate its existence between the singularity of its productions, and the apprehension that can be made of it by means of the universals that are proposed by science. (shrink)

Resumen: El presente artículo intenta explorar en dos tiempos de indagación del método estructural de Claude Lévi-Strauss. El primero de ellos se ubica en torno de los criterios epistemológicos y metodológicos que cifran el análisis del parentesco y del mito. El segundo tiempo pretende indagar en el alcance de estos criterios para definir la categoría de sujeto y de pensamiento al interior de la antropología estructural. Finalmente, una ilustración de estos problemas es elaborada mediante el tratamiento que el método estructural (...) asigna a la teoría psicoanalítica.: This article attempts an exploration in two inquiry stages of Claude Lévi-Strauss structural method. The first stage will be focused on the epistemological and methodological criteria that encrypt the analysis of kinship and myth. The second stage intends to investigate the scope of these criteria to define the category of subject and thought within the structural anthropology. Finally, an illustration of these problems is elaborated through the treatment that the structural method assigns to psychoanalytic theory. (shrink)

El presente artículo analiza el periodo de conformación de la filosofía de Georges Canguilhem (1926-1939). Se concentra en la elaboración temprana de sus ideas relativas a la teoría del valor y de la autonomía de la acción humana. Dos aspectos de esta filosofía son tomados en consideración. En primer lugar, el vinculo que mantiene el entendimiento con los hechos que forman parte de la realidad, observando la incidencia de esta filosofía del valor y de la acción en el dominio de (...) tres disciplinas pertenecientes a las ciencias sociales (psicología, sociología, historia). Un segundo momento del texto analiza el espacio asignado por estas elaboraciones al psicoanálisis, teoría que Canguilhem asocia a los fundamentos de la dimensión política y ética de esta filosofía. (shrink)

El artículo busca profundizar en las elaboraciones de Freud respecto de la agresividad y la inconvertibilidad de la violencia, con el objeto de indagar en los posibles aportes que la perspectiva psicoanalítica puede realizar frente a los problemas sociopolíticos contemporáneos. Este trabajo se detiene en las problemáticas referidas a la naturalización de las identidades, la radicalización de las retóricas comunitarias y los escenarios de exclusión. Sostiene, en este sentido, la importancia de los procesos sublimatorios en el trabajo de diferimiento frente (...) al empuje pulsional. (shrink)

Resumen: El artículo busca indagar en el vínculo entre las elaboraciones de Wittgenstein y el psicoanálisis. La argumentación se detiene en las propuestas de Wittgenstein acerca de la imposibilidad autorreferencial del lenguaje, los actos éticos y el psicoanálisis. En este contexto, esboza una posible respuesta a las críticas que Wittgenstein dirigió al psicoanálisis, reflexionándolas desde tres nociones que son centrales en la obra de Jacques Lacan: causalidad, ficción y la idea de sujeto. Un segundo tiempo del artículo se propone pensar (...) el vínculo entre ética y subjetividad, desde la temporalidad que introduce en el decir del humano la dinámica pulsional. Abstract: The article seeks to inquire about the link between Wittgenstein's elaborations and psychoanalysis. Reasoning stops at Wittgenstein's proposals on the self-referential impossibility of language, ethical acts and psychoanalysis. In this context, he sketches a possible response to the criticisms that Wittgenstein directed to psychoanalysis, pondering them from three central notions in Jacques Lacan's work: causality, fiction and the idea of ​​subject. In a second time, the article proposes to think about the link between ethics and subjectivity, from the temporality which introduces, in the human perspective, the dynamic drive. (shrink)

Bentley et al.--O’Brien bypass the relevance of emotions in decision-making, resulting in a possible over-simplification of behavioral types. We propose integrating emotions, both in the north-south axis (in relation to cognition) as well as in the west-east axis (in relation to social influence), by suggesting a Z axis, in charge of registering emotional depth and involvement.

Epistemic Utility Theory is often identified with the project of *axiology-first epistemology*—the project of vindicating norms of epistemic rationality purely in terms of epistemic value. One of the central goals of axiology-first epistemology is to provide a justification of the central norm of Bayesian epistemology, Probabilism. The first part of this paper presents a new challenge to axiology first epistemology: I argue that in order to justify Probabilism in purely axiological terms, proponents of axiology first epistemology need to justify a (...) claim about epistemic value—what I label ‘Downwards Propriety’—much stronger than any they have offered justification. The second part of this paper offers an argument that this challenge cannot be met: that there is no hope for providing a purely axiological justification of Downwards Propriety, at least given widely accepted assumptions about epistemic value. (shrink)

This chapter contains sections titled: Acosta, José de (1539–1600) Alberdi, Juan Bautista (1810–84) Bello, Andrés (1781–1865) Bilbao, Francisco (1823–65) Bolkvar, Simón (1783–1830) Casas, Bartolomé de las (1484–1566) Caso, Antonio (1883–1946) Cruz, Sor Juana Inés de la (1651–95) da Costa, Newton Carneiro Affonso (b. 1929) Dussel, Enrique (b. 1934) Frondizi, Risieri (1910–83) Gaos, José (1900–69) González Prada, Manuel (1848–1918) Gracia, Jorge J. E. (b. 1942) Haya de la Torre, Victor Raúl (1895–1979) Hostos, Eugenio Marka de (1839–1903) Ingenieros, José (1877–1925) Korn, (...) Alejandro (1860–1936) Lastarria, José Victorino (1817–88) Lemos, Miguel (1854–1917) Mariátegui, José Carlos (1895–1930) Martk, José (1853–95) Méndez Sierra, Justo (1848–1912) Mora, José Maria Luis (1794–1850) Miró Quesada, Francisco (b. 1918) Rabossi, Eduardo (1930–2005) Ramos, Samuel (1897–1959) Rodó, José Enrique (1872–1917) Romero, Francisco (1891–1962) Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de (1499–1590) Salazar Bondy, Augusto (1925–74) Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino (1811–88) Ofelia Schutte (b. 1945) Sepslveda, Juan Ginés de (ca. 1494–1573) Torretti, Roberto (b. 1930) Vasconcelos, José (1882–1959) Vaz Ferreira, Carlos (1872–1958) Villoro, Luis (b. 1922) Vitoria, Francisco de (ca. 1483–1546) Zea Aguilar, Leopoldo (1912–2004) Acknowledgment Further Reading. (shrink)

In this essay I revise, based on the notion of the ‘enlightened ruler’ or mingzhu and his critique of the literati of his time, the common belief that Han Fei was an amoralist and an advocate of tyranny. Instead, I will argue that his writings are dedicated to advising those who ought to rule in order to achieve the goal of a peaceful and stable society framed by laws in accordance with the dao.

The purpose of this essay is to articulate a specific desideratum for any theory of Latinidad, namely, that there is no adequate conception of Latinx without an attendant conception of Afro-Latinx. In order to be reflective of those whom it purports to describe in the U.S. and elsewhere in the hemisphere, the term Latinx must be plastic enough to encompass the many internal differences, and even antagonisms, between its different constituent parts. Within it, we argue here in particular, it must (...) include its Afro-descended history, which includes not just African-descended people but also a denial of the influences of African-descended culture writ large. Our central claim here, then, is that a certain African-descendedness is constitutive of Latinidad in multiple registers, including history, cultural practices, and social identificatory processes despite Latinidad’s pernicious exclusionary history. (shrink)

Drawing on behavioral economics, nudges (policy interventions based on choice architecture) have the capacity to strategically shape policymaking, subtly guiding individual behavior by adjusting their decision environment. Applied to enhance vaccinations, boost retirement savings, or promote healthy habits, these interventions align with consensus-defined well-being. As governments adopt nudges, scholars have explored their role in fostering virtues. This paper argues that nudges have the potential to efficiently contribute to virtuous development by instilling and sustaining habits, respecting individual choice, and ensuring deliberation. (...) It introduces the concept of virtue nudges, emphasizing the alignment of habits with virtues for targeted behavioral change and the formation of morally virtuous habits. (shrink)

Although vaccines are considered an efficient public health tool by medical experts, in different countries, people’s confidence in them has been decreasing. COVID-19 has elevated medical scientists’ and practitioners’ social reputation, and it may have reduced global vaccination hesitancy. Still, this alone will not altogether remove the existent frictions that prevent people from complying with vaccination schedules. This paper will review the common causes behind vaccination hesitancy. It will also explore different types of public policy interventions that health experts in (...) governments and institutions employ to fight vaccine hesitancy and non-compliance. The main objective of this article is to argue that, considering the nature of the issue (vaccine hesitancy and its causes), among the various possibilities, policies based on behavioral insights can provide an effective instrument to remove those frictions. Among them, special attention will be devoted to nudges which promise efficiency while avoiding some of the ethical and political costs of other interventions, thanks to their libertarian paternalistic frame. The article concludes by suggesting that public health policymakers should consider the libertarian paternalistic approach of nudges when deploying interventions that aim at changing people’s attitudes and behavior. (shrink)

This introduction to this collection of essays presents diverse perspectives on social identities, inviting readers to reconsider established notions and explore new approaches to understanding these complex social phenomena. The contributions challenge traditional philosophical boundaries, intersecting ontological, epistemological, ethical, and political considerations. // The authors situate different views on the ontology of social identities within some extant options. Thus, they contrast their "social identity affordance view" with two alternative approaches: the Cambridge Social Ontology group's positioning theory and Weichold & Thonhauser's (...) broad conception of social identities. Their view understands social identities as realities that structure social life and shape individuals' self-conceptions, emphasizing the importance of historical contingency and social context. // The introduction then proceeds to review the contributions to the volume. The volume comprises three sections: "Experiences of Social Identities," exploring how specific identities are understood and experienced; "Horizons of Social Identities," examining how identities develop and change over time; and "Some Frameworks of Social Identities," presenting alternative frameworks for conceptualizing social identities. (shrink)

© 2019 The Author. Background: The phenomenon of being 'with woman' is fundamental to midwifery as it underpins its philosophy, relationships and practices. There is an identified gap in knowledge around the 'with woman' phenomenon from the perspective of midwives providing care in a variety of contexts. As such, the aim of this study was to explore the experiences of being 'with woman' during labour and birth from the perspective of midwives' working in a model where care is provided by (...) a known midwife. Methods: A descriptive phenomenological design was employed with ten midwives working in a 'known midwife' model who described their experiences of being 'with woman' during labour and birth. The method was informed by Husserlian philosophy which seeks to explore the same phenomenon through rich descriptions by individuals revealing commonalities of the experience. Results: Five themes emerged 1) Building relationships; 2) Woman centred care; 3) Impact on the midwife; 4) Impact on the woman; and 5) Challenges in the Known Midwife model. Midwives emphasised the importance of trusting relationships while being 'with woman', confirming that this relationship extends beyond the woman - midwife relationship to include the woman's support people and family. Being 'with woman' during labour and birth in the context of the relationship facilitates woman-centred care. Being 'with woman' influences midwives, and, it is noted, the women that midwives are working with. Finally, challenges that impact being 'with woman' in the known midwife model are shared by midwives. Conclusions: Findings offer valuable insight into midwives' experiences of being 'with woman' in the context of models that provide care by a known midwife. In this model, the trusting relationship is the conduit for being 'with woman' which influences the midwife, the profession of midwifery, as well as women and their families. Descriptions of challenges to being 'with woman' provide opportunities for professional development and service review. Rich descriptions from the unique voice of midwives, provided insight into the applied practices of being 'with woman' in a known midwife model which adds important knowledge concerning a phenomenon so deeply embedded in the philosophy and practices of the profession of midwifery. (shrink)

It is commonly accepted that Han Fei studied under Xunzi sometime during the late third century BCE. However, there is surprisingly little dedicated to the in-depth study of the relationship between Xunzi’s ideas and one of his best-known followers. In this essay I argue that Han Fei’s notion of xing, commonly translated as human nature, was not only influenced by Xunzi but also that it is an important feature of his political philosophy.

The meta-problem of consciousness is the problem of explaining why we have problem intuitions about consciousness, why we intuitively think that conscious experience cannot be scientifically explained. In his discussion of this problem, David Chalmers briefly considers the possibility of giving a 'genealogical' solution, according to which problem intuitions are 'accidents of cultural history' (2018, p. 33). Chalmers' response to this solution is largely dismissive. In this paper, we defend the viability of a genealogical solution. Our strategy is to focus (...) on a particular problem intuition: the thought that the phenomenal character of colour experience is irreducibly subjective. We use the history of the inverted spectrum thought experiment as a window into how various philosophers have thought about colour experience. Our genealogy reveals that problem intuitions about colour are not timeless, but instead arise in a specific historical context, one that, in large part, explains why we have these intuitions. (shrink)

��In four experiments we address the question whether several visual objects can be selected voluntarily (exogenously) and then tracked in a Multiple Object Tracking paradigm and, if so, whether the selection involves a different process. Experiment 1 showed that items can indeed be selected based on their labels. Experiment 2 showed that to select the complement set to a set that is automatically (exogenously) selected — e.g. to select all objects not flashed — observers require additional time and that given (...) 1080 ms they were able to select and track them as well as those selected automatically. Experiment 3 showed that the additional time needed in the previous experiment cannot be attributed solely to time required to disengage attention from the initially automatic selections. Experiment 4 showed that the added time provides a monotonically greater benefit when there are more targets, suggesting a serial process. These results are discussed in relation to the Visual Index (FINST) theory which assumes that visual indexes are captured by a data-driven process. It is suggested that voluntarily allocated attention can be used to facilitate the automatic attention capture by objects of interest. (shrink)

Se trata de una reseña del libro de Belvedresi, Rosa, La filosofía de la historia hoy: preguntas y problemas, Rosario, Prohistoria Ediciones, 172 páginas. ARK: ark:/s18537960/vz0cdnohf.

In her work on decolonial feminism María Lugones expands and strengthens the task of decolonial thinking. On the one hand this occurs as gender becomes explicitly part of the very ways of being under modernity, and this means that gender, race, and labor are always entangled in the coloniality of power. As a result decolonial thought may only occur by the critique of one's concrete situation in the living intersectionality in which identities and power relations are founded. This turn to (...) concrete intersectionality occurs as Lugones thinks in light of cosmological indigenous lineages in América,1 and with this turn engages not only the logical, epistemic, and conceptual levels of coloniality but, in a turn that makes possible the affirmation of subjugated knowledges, she turns to the aisthetic dimensions of the coloniality of power and knowledge: Most significantly, in this way, she is able to begin to think with the liberatory rhythms, movements, practices that are our lives as sites of resistance and contestation never subsumed by the coloniality of power, modernity, and capitalism. (shrink)

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) has featured an increasing concern for understanding and considering the cultural diversity of the populations behavior analysts serve in recent years. As an expression of that concern, the new BACB’s Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts is more explicit and comprehensive in its inclusion of ethical obligations concerning cultural diversity. The purpose of this paper is to offer a discussion on the limitations of both our capacity and willingness to know and overcome our ignorance about our own (...) and other cultures. We examine different ways in which our ignorance of other cultures plays out even in willful compliance with the BACB ethics code. We suggest part of the problem is that the BACB ethics code seems to operate under the assumption that practitioners are always aware or can be aware of what they do not know and their biases. In contrast, we offer a reflection on a more complex picture of our understanding of ourselves and other cultures where we cannot assume people are aware of what they ignore and of their biases. Ethically, we find that in some cases these blindspots are accounted for by the BACB ethics code and should be foreseen and addressed by the behavior analyst (BA). But in other cases, when a person is not aware of what they ignore, understanding the connection between cultural diversity ignorance and professional behavior requires a different approach. Our analysis suggests an attitude of being thoughtfully diligent and humble while learning about cultural diversity issues and examining the areas where we might be ignorant and not aware of our ignorance. We argue that BAs’ obligations to respect the dignity of clients and their families and to provide effective treatment call for this attitude of diligence and humility that goes beyond mere compliance. (shrink)

Este artículo presenta y defiende una concepción expresiva del mundo perceptual que depende de la intersubjetividad. En un primer momento se muestra el desarrollo del concepto de expresión en Husserl y en Merleau-Ponty. El punto central de este desarrollo es que, en contraste con la concepción tradicional del concepto de expresión que es lingüística y consiste en el manifestarse exteriormente de algo interno, se propone ahora una idea de expresión que ya no separa radicalmente lo expresado de la expresión, no (...) se concibe como traducción, y se aplica a la relación entre subjetividad y corporalidad. Para ajustar la aplicación de la expresión a la percepción, se argumenta que las apariencias perceptuales requieren de una cualificación en términos de la posición o perspectiva del sujeto que percibe. Esta “posición” o perspectiva no es únicamente espacio-temporal, sino que también es pragmática. Finalmente, se introduce la intersubjetividad, entendida pragmáticamente, a través de la idea de que hay maneras de explorar el mundo con los sentidos que son constituidas socialmente por los diferentes grupos sociales de los que hacemos parte. Se argumenta que esta concepción pragmatista, diferente a la ruta predominante en fenomenología basada en el significado como un asunto de conciencia de la experiencia, también es defendible en el terreno fenomenológico, particularmente a través de la noción husserliana de toma de posición (Stellungnahme) y la idea merleau-pontiana de las maneras de interrogar el mundo perceptualmente. -/- This article presents and defends an expressive and intersubjectively dependent conception of the perceptual world. The first section deals with the phenomenological development of the concept of expression in Husserl and Merleau-Ponty. In this development, and in contrast with the traditional conception of expression –a linguistic conception based on the external manifesting of something inner–, a new conception appears: one that doesn’t keep a hard separation between the expression and what is expressed, is not modeled after translation, and can be applied to the relationship between subjectivity and corporeality. To further precise the way expression and perception fit together, I argue that perceptual appearances require being qualified in terms of the position or perspective of the perceiving subject. This “position” or perspective is not only spatiotemporal but also pragmatic. Lastly, a pragmatically understood intersubjectivity is brought into play. I look at the fact that there are different ways of exploring the world with our senses that are socially constituted. This constitution takes places in and through the different social groups to which we belong. I argue that this pragmatist conception, while different from the dominant phenomenological understanding that takes meaning to be about the consciousness of experiences, is also defensible on phenomenological grounds. This alternative understanding finds support in Husserl’s idea of position-taking (Stellungnahme) and Merleau-Ponty’s claim that there exist different ways of interrogating the world perceptually. (shrink)

Translation and interpretation of selected Hadith on Islamic ethics and coduct.

En este trabajo hago una comparación sistemática entre las dos teorías de la confirmación más populares en la actualidad: el método hipotético-deductivo y el bayesianismo. En primer lugar, enumero los cinco problemas fundamentales de la teoría hipotético-deductivista. Estos son el problema de las hipótesis estadísticas, el del grado de confirmación, el de la conjunción irrelevante, el del holismo epistemológico y el de las hipótesis alternativas. Luego, hago una presentación general de la epistemología bayesiana y muestro de qué manera estos problemas (...) resultan tratables en el marco bayesiano. Finalmente, concluyo que los tres primeros admiten una solución satisfactoria, sobre la base de algunos supuestos razonables. Los dos últimos, en cambio, todavía son problemas abiertos para la teoría bayesiana de la confirmación. Bayesians often affirm they have produced the best available theory of confirmation. In particular, they claim to have superseded the venerable hypothetico-deductive method. In this paper I intend to assess that claim by making a systematic comparison between both theories of confirmation. I begin by listing the main problems of hypothetico-deductive confirmation. I then show that this conception is incompatible with Hempel's conditions of adequacy for qualitative confirmation. I expound the Bayesian theory of confirmation with some detail in order to show that this theory is able to solve three out of the five fundamental problems of hypothetico-deductive confirmation. largue that the remaining two problems are still open questions for the Bayesians. (shrink)

All the aspects related to good and bad paths have been explained in the Quran, which is a guideline for every Muslim. If we talk about philosophical theories related to evil in Buddhism, we will understand a different kind of concept. In Buddhism, it has been said that the purpose of life is the purification of the soul, and evils in life serve as opportunities to make the soul. The first important philosophical development related to the problem of evil is (...) will-free defense. This theory emphasizes the freedom of human beings given by God. Because of this freedom of human beings, they can opt for evil in life. This theory explains that a human being is a combination of matter of virtue and evil as well, so it depends upon human will what he opts for in his life. The other and most important theory related to the philosophy of evil is soul-making theodicy. This philosophical theory explains that God's objective in making the universe is the development of the soul and spiritual values of human beings. These soul-making processes can be made better in the presence of any evil factor. (shrink)

Nos proponemos abordar la tesis de la segunda antinomia. Primero, intentaremos demostrar que la tesis y su prueba sólo pueden versar sobre partes simples materiales de cuerpos extensos en el espacio, y no sobre sustancias simples inmateriales. En segundo lugar, intentaremos demostrar que en la tesis y su prueba intervienen una síntesis categorial y una síntesis empírica correspondientes a la categoría de cualidad, lo que conduce a afirmar que la prueba no procede por meros conceptos, sino que introduce cierta referencia (...) a la intuición. Dicha referencia será explicada a través de la síntesis empírica de realidad y confirmara que la tesis se refiere a partes simples corpóreas. (shrink)